kupunguzwa daraja Marekani 2011 S&P soko hisa

Baada ya kufungwa kwa soko Ijumaa, Agosti 5, 2011, Standard & Poor's ilipunguza daraja la sifa ya mikopo ya Marekani kutoka AAA hadi AA+, ikiwa ni mara ya kwanza katika historia kwa Marekani kupunguzwa daraja la sifa ya mikopo. Jumatatu, Agosti 8 ilikuwa nafasi ya kwanza ya soko kupiga kura juu ya hatua hiyo, wakati wa kilele cha mzozo wa deni la Ulaya majira hayo ya kiangazi. Ukurasa huu unarejea kwenye kura hiyo kutoka kwa rekodi za dakika kwa dakika: nini kilishuka, nini kilipanda, siku hiyo iko wapi kwenye viwango, na muda gani uliochukuliwa kurekebisha uharibifu. Kila namba ni swala lililohifadhiwa; panua paneli yoyote ili kuona SQL.

Kwa nini S&P ilipunguza daraja la Marekani

Kupunguzwa kwa daraja kulikuwa kitendo cha mwisho cha mzozo wa kikomo cha deni wa mwaka 2011. Kikomo cha deni ni kikomo cha kisheria cha jumla ya kukopa kwa serikali ya shirikisho; mara serikali inapofikia kikomo hicho, Hazina haiwezi kutoa deni jipya kulipia matumizi ambayo Congress tayari imeidhinisha. Marekani ilifikia kikomo cha $14.3 trilioni Mei 16, 2011, na Hazina ilianza "hatua za kipekee," ujanja wa uhasibu ulionunua muda hadi Agosti 2, tarehe iliyokadiriwa ya kukosa pesa. Congress ilipitisha Sheria ya Udhibiti wa Bajeti, na Rais aliitia saini Agosti 2 yenyewe: kukwepa kukosa malipo kwa saa chache zilizobaki.

Siku tatu baadaye, baada ya kufungwa kwa Ijumaa, S&P ilipunguza daraja hata hivyo. Taarifa yake ilitoa hoja mbili. Kwanza, mchakato: miezi ya mzozo wa hatari kuhusu kama Marekani ingekosa malipo kwa hiari ulifanya, kwa maneno ya S&P, utungaji sera wa Marekani "usio imara, usio na ufanisi, na usiotabirika." Pili, hesabu: akiba iliyokadiriwa ya takriban $2.1 trilioni katika miaka kumi kutoka kwa sheria hiyo ilikuwa chini ya kile S&P ilichokiona kuwa muhimu kuleta utulivu katika mwelekeo wa deni la serikali. Idara ya Hazina ilipinga hesabu hiyo hadharani, ikitambua tofauti ya $2 trilioni katika mawazo; S&P ilirekebisha takwimu na kubaki na daraja jipya. Moody's na Fitch, mashirika mengine mawili makubwa, yalithibitisha daraja zao za AAA majira hayo ya kiangazi, kwa hivyo ufunguzi wa Jumatatu ulikuwa soko likikadiria uamuzi wa shirika moja.

Siku, kwa mstari mmoja

WITH
    (
        SELECT argMaxIf(toFloat64(close), window_start, (toHour(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) * 60 + toMinute(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York'))) BETWEEN 570 AND 959)
        FROM global_markets.delayed_stocks_minute_aggs
        WHERE ticker = 'SPY'
          AND window_start >= toDateTime('2011-08-05 00:00:00') AND window_start < toDateTime('2011-08-08 04:00:00')
    ) AS prior_rth_close
SELECT
    round(prior_rth_close, 2) AS prior_close,
    round(toFloat64(argMinIf(open, window_start, (toHour(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) * 60 + toMinute(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York'))) BETWEEN 570 AND 959)), 2) AS rth_open,
    round((toFloat64(argMinIf(open, window_start, (toHour(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) * 60 + toMinute(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York'))) BETWEEN 570 AND 959)) / prior_rth_close - 1) * 100, 1) AS gap_pct,
    round(minIf(toFloat64(low), (toHour(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) * 60 + toMinute(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York'))) BETWEEN 570 AND 959), 2) AS rth_low,
    formatDateTime(toTimeZone(argMinIf(window_start, (toFloat64(low), toInt64(toUnixTimestamp(window_start))), (toHour(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) * 60 + toMinute(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York'))) BETWEEN 570 AND 959), 'America/New_York'), '%H:%i') AS low_et,
    round(maxIf(toFloat64(high), (toHour(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) * 60 + toMinute(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York'))) BETWEEN 570 AND 959), 2) AS rth_high,
    round(toFloat64(argMaxIf(close, window_start, (toHour(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) * 60 + toMinute(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York'))) BETWEEN 570 AND 959)), 2) AS rth_close,
    round((toFloat64(argMaxIf(close, window_start, (toHour(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) * 60 + toMinute(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York'))) BETWEEN 570 AND 959)) / prior_rth_close - 1) * 100, 1) AS day_change_pct,
    round((minIf(toFloat64(low), (toHour(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) * 60 + toMinute(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York'))) BETWEEN 570 AND 959) / prior_rth_close - 1) * 100, 1) AS low_vs_prior_pct,
    round(toFloat64(sum(volume)) / 1e6, 1) AS day_shares_m,
    countIf((toHour(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) * 60 + toMinute(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York'))) BETWEEN 570 AND 959) AS rth_minute_bars
FROM global_markets.delayed_stocks_minute_aggs
WHERE ticker = 'SPY'
  AND window_start >= toDateTime('2011-08-08 04:00:00') AND window_start < toDateTime('2011-08-08 23:59:00')

SPY ilifungua -2.6% chini kutoka kwa bei ya kufunga ya 120.03 ya Ijumaa na haikufanikiwa kupata ahueni yoyote: bei ya chini ya 112.02 ilitokea saa 14:25 ET na kufunga, kwa 112.28, ilikuwa -6.5%, miongoni mwa vikao vibaya zaidi vya siku moja kati ya mgogoro wa 2008 na 2020, na paneli ya viwango hapa chini inaweka namba kamili kwa madai hayo. Kiasi cha biashara kilikuwa hisa milioni 695.2 za SPY, na baa zote 390 za dakika za kikao cha kawaida zilichapishwa: kikao kamili, hakuna kusimamishwa, na bado kufunga hivyo.

Ngazi, si shimo la hewa

SELECT
    formatDateTime(toStartOfInterval(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York'), INTERVAL 30 MINUTE), '%H:%i') AS et_time,
    round(toFloat64(argMax(close, window_start)), 2) AS bucket_close,
    round(min(toFloat64(low)), 2) AS bucket_low,
    round(toFloat64(sum(volume)) / 1e6, 1) AS shares_m
FROM global_markets.delayed_stocks_minute_aggs
WHERE ticker = 'SPY'
  AND window_start >= toDateTime('2011-08-08 04:00:00') AND window_start < toDateTime('2011-08-08 23:59:00')
  AND (toHour(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) * 60 + toMinute(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York'))) BETWEEN 570 AND 959
GROUP BY et_time
ORDER BY et_time

Linganisha umbo hili na ajali ya kasi ya miezi kumi na tano iliyopita: hakuna shimo la hewa la ndoo moja, hakuna kurudi nyuma kwa ghafla, ni nusu saa kumi na tatu tu ambapo karibu kila kufunga ni cha chini kuliko kilichotangulia, ikiongezeka kasi kuelekea alasiri. Hiyo ni kushuka kwa imani: ukwasi ulibaki wapo na bei bado zilianguka, kwa kipindi chote cha siku. Mitambo tofauti, maana tofauti, nambari nyekundu ileile, sababu moja ya kusoma umbo la ndani ya siku kuwa muhimu kama mabadiliko ya kila siku.

Kilichoshuka Sana na Kilichopanda

Kushushwa daraja kwa serikali hakuathiri kila ticker kwa usawa; tape hupanga majina kwa kiwango cha hatari. Hizi ni ticker tisa zenye ukwasi, kuanzia kufunga rasmi Ijumaa hadi Jumatatu, mbaya hadi bora:

SELECT
    ticker,
    round(fri_close, 2) AS fri_close_usd,
    round(mon_close, 2) AS mon_close_usd,
    round((mon_close / fri_close - 1) * 100, 1) AS change_pct
FROM (
    SELECT
        ticker,
        argMaxIf(toFloat64(close), window_start, toDate(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) = toDate('2011-08-05') AND (toHour(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) * 60 + toMinute(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York'))) BETWEEN 570 AND 959) AS fri_close,
        argMaxIf(toFloat64(close), window_start, toDate(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) = toDate('2011-08-08') AND (toHour(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) * 60 + toMinute(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York'))) BETWEEN 570 AND 959) AS mon_close
    FROM global_markets.delayed_stocks_minute_aggs
    WHERE ticker IN ('VXX', 'BAC', 'C', 'GS', 'XLF', 'SPY', 'KO', 'XLU', 'GLD')
      AND window_start >= toDateTime('2011-08-05 00:00:00') AND window_start < toDateTime('2011-08-09 04:00:00')
    GROUP BY ticker
)
ORDER BY mon_close / fri_close ASC, ticker ASC

Uuzaji ulijikita katika benki. Bank of America ilishuka -20%, takriban dola moja kati ya kila tano za thamani yake ya soko, zikapotea kwa kipindi kimoja, huku Citigroup ikiwa -15.8% na XLF, mfuko wa sekta ya fedha, ukiwa -9.6%, zote zikizidi mbali -6.5% ya SPY. Coca-Cola ya bidhaa za matumizi ya kawaida ilipoteza -2.3% tu. Na safu mbili zilimaliza kijani: GLD, mfuko wa dhahabu, uliongeza 3.3%, na VXX, noti inayouzwa kwa soko inayofuatilia mustakabali wa VIX wa muda mfupi, "kipimo cha hofu" cha soko, iliruka 14.6%. Tape moja, hadithi tatu kwa wakati mmoja: msukosuko wa benki, upunguzaji wa hatari kwa utaratibu katika fahirisi pana, na kukimbilia kwa bima.

Ambapo Agosti 8 Inajikuta Miongoni mwa Siku Mbaya Zaidi

Je, kikao cha kushushwa daraja kilikuwa cha kihistoria, au kibaya tu? Njia moja ya kujibu: hesabu mabadiliko ya kufunga hadi kufunga kwa kila kikao cha SPY kuanzia 2003 hadi 2025 na uyapange.

WITH daily AS (
    SELECT
        toDate(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) AS et_date,
        argMax(toFloat64(close), window_start) AS close_usd
    FROM global_markets.delayed_stocks_minute_aggs
    WHERE ticker = 'SPY'
      AND (toHour(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) * 60 + toMinute(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York'))) BETWEEN 570 AND 959
      AND window_start >= toDateTime('2003-01-01 00:00:00') AND window_start < toDateTime('2026-01-01 00:00:00')
    GROUP BY et_date
),
changes AS (
    SELECT et_date, close_usd,
           lagInFrame(close_usd) OVER (ORDER BY et_date ASC ROWS BETWEEN 1 PRECEDING AND CURRENT ROW) AS prev_close
    FROM daily
),
ranked AS (
    SELECT et_date, close_usd,
           round((close_usd / prev_close - 1) * 100, 1) AS change_pct,
           row_number() OVER (ORDER BY close_usd / prev_close ASC, et_date ASC) AS day_rank
    FROM changes
    WHERE prev_close > 0
),
enriched AS (
    SELECT et_date, change_pct, day_rank,
           max(if(et_date = toDate('2011-08-08'), day_rank, 0)) OVER () AS downgrade_rank,
           sum(if(day_rank <= 10 AND toYear(et_date) NOT IN (2008, 2020), 1, 0)) OVER () AS top10_outside_crises,
           round((max(if(et_date = toDate('2011-08-05'), close_usd, 0)) OVER () / max(if(et_date = toDate('2011-07-22'), close_usd, 0)) OVER () - 1) * 100, 1) AS two_week_slide_pct
    FROM ranked
)
SELECT
    toString(et_date) AS session,
    change_pct,
    downgrade_rank,
    top10_outside_crises,
    two_week_slide_pct
FROM enriched
WHERE day_rank <= 10
ORDER BY day_rank

Agosti 8, 2011 inashika nafasi ya 9-mbaya zaidi katika miaka hiyo ishirini na tatu, na ndiyo siku pekee kati ya kumi bora kutoka nje ya mgogoro wa kifedha wa 2008-09 na anguko la COVID Machi 2020. Hata hivyo, muktadha una pande mbili: soko lilikuwa tayari likirudi nyuma kabla ya S&P kuchukua hatua. SPY ilikuwa imeshuka kwa -10.8% katika wiki mbili zilizotangulia Ijumaa ya kushushwa daraja, wakati mzozo wa kikomo cha deni uliendelea hadi mwisho na mgogoro wa dhamana za Ulaya ulienea kuelekea Italia na Hispania. Jumatatu ilipima mambo mawili kwa wakati mmoja: mshtuko wa kupoteza daraja la AAA na mteremko uliokuwa tayari unaendelea, na hakuna swala linaloweza kuvitenganisha kabisa. Kile ambacho rekodi inaweza kusema: kikao kibaya zaidi cha mrekebisho huo wote kilitokea siku ya kwanza ya biashara baada ya kushushwa daraja.

Mali iliyoshushwa daraja ilipanda

Hapa ndio sehemu ambayo kila simulizi la tukio hili linapaswa kukaa nayo: dhamana ambayo S&P ilishusha daraja ilikuwa deni la serikali ya Marekani, na ilipanda.

SELECT
    toString(date) AS date,
    round(yield_3_month, 2) AS yield_3_month,
    round(yield_2_year, 2) AS yield_2_year,
    round(yield_10_year, 2) AS yield_10_year,
    round(yield_30_year, 2) AS yield_30_year
FROM global_markets.treasury_yields
WHERE date BETWEEN '2011-08-01' AND '2011-08-15'
ORDER BY date

Mavuno ya 10-year Treasury yalifunga Ijumaa ya kushushwa daraja kwa 2.58%, yakashuka hadi 2.4% Jumatatu Nyeusi, na kugusa 2.2% siku iliyofuata. Mavuno ya bondi hushuka bei yake inapopanda, kwa hivyo mavuno ya chini yanamaanisha wawekezaji walikuwa wakilipa zaidi kwa deni la serikali ambalo daraja lake lilikuwa limekatwa, hivyo kukopa kwa bei nafuu kwa akopaye aliyeshushwa daraja. Mahitaji ya usalama yalizidi shaka yoyote kuhusu mali salama yenyewe, huku 2-year ikimaliza Jumanne hiyo kwa 0.19%, ikiwa imebandikwa karibu na sifuri. kifafanuzi cha mkunjo wa mavuno wa 2s10s kinashughulikia vyombo hivi na kile ambacho pengo kati yao linapima.

Wiki ya mwisho wa juma yenye mabadiliko makali

SELECT
    toString(et_date) AS session,
    close_usd,
    round(if(prev_close = 0, NULL, (close_usd / prev_close - 1) * 100), 1) AS change_pct,
    shares_m
FROM (
    SELECT et_date, close_usd, shares_m,
           lagInFrame(close_usd) OVER (ORDER BY et_date ASC ROWS BETWEEN 1 PRECEDING AND CURRENT ROW) AS prev_close
    FROM (
        SELECT
            toDate(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) AS et_date,
            round(argMaxIf(toFloat64(close), window_start, (toHour(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) * 60 + toMinute(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York'))) BETWEEN 570 AND 959), 2) AS close_usd,
            round(toFloat64(sum(volume)) / 1e6, 1) AS shares_m
        FROM global_markets.delayed_stocks_minute_aggs
        WHERE ticker = 'SPY'
          AND window_start >= toDateTime('2011-08-05 00:00:00') AND window_start < toDateTime('2011-08-12 23:59:00')
        GROUP BY et_date
    )
)
WHERE et_date >= toDate('2011-08-08') AND et_date <= toDate('2011-08-12')
ORDER BY et_date

Kilichofuata kilikuwa mojawapo ya wiki zenye mabadiliko makali zaidi kwenye rekodi katika pande zote mbili: Jumanne +4.6%, Jumatano -4.4%, Alhamisi +4.5%, Ijumaa +0.7%, vipindi vinne mfululizo vikibadilishana kati ya kuporomoka na kupanda. Mlipuko wa Jumanne uliambatana na taarifa ya Agosti 9 ya Hifadhi ya Shirikisho, ambayo iliahidi kushikilia kiwango cha fedha cha shirikisho karibu na sifuri "angalau hadi katikati ya 2013", mara ya kwanza FOMC kuunganisha mwongozo wake na tarehe ya kalenda badala ya lugha ya zamani ya "kipindi kilichorefushwa", ahadi ya miaka miwili ya pesa bure iliyotolewa kwenye mkanda uliojaa hofu. Wiki zenye mabadiliko makali za namna hiyo ndivyo taratibu za tete (volatility) zinavyojitangaza; mwelekeo unajitokeza baadaye.

Muda halisi wa kurejea kwa soko

"Masoko yalirejea ndani ya miezi michache" ndio muhtasari wa kawaida wa tukio hili. Jibu lililohifadhiwa ni sahihi zaidi, na lenye kuvutia zaidi.

WITH daily AS (
    SELECT
        toDate(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) AS et_date,
        argMax(toFloat64(close), window_start) AS close_usd
    FROM global_markets.delayed_stocks_minute_aggs
    WHERE ticker = 'SPY'
      AND (toHour(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York')) * 60 + toMinute(toTimeZone(window_start, 'America/New_York'))) BETWEEN 570 AND 959
      AND window_start >= toDateTime('2011-08-05 00:00:00') AND window_start < toDateTime('2012-07-01 00:00:00')
    GROUP BY et_date
),
(SELECT close_usd FROM daily WHERE et_date = toDate('2011-08-05')) AS pre_close,
(SELECT close_usd FROM daily WHERE et_date = toDate('2011-08-08')) AS mon_close,
(SELECT min(et_date) FROM daily WHERE et_date > toDate('2011-08-05') AND close_usd >= pre_close) AS reclaim_d
SELECT
    round(pre_close, 2) AS predowngrade_close,
    toString(reclaim_d) AS first_reclaim_date,
    countIf(et_date > toDate('2011-08-05') AND et_date < reclaim_d) AS sessions_before_first_reclaim,
    toString(argMinIf(et_date, (close_usd, et_date), et_date > toDate('2011-08-05'))) AS bottom_date,
    round(minIf(close_usd, et_date > toDate('2011-08-05')), 2) AS bottom_close,
    round((minIf(close_usd, et_date > toDate('2011-08-05')) / pre_close - 1) * 100, 1) AS bottom_vs_predowngrade_pct,
    round((minIf(close_usd, et_date > toDate('2011-08-05')) / mon_close - 1) * 100, 1) AS bottom_vs_downgrade_monday_pct,
    toString(maxIf(et_date, close_usd < pre_close)) AS last_close_below,
    countIf(et_date > toDate('2011-08-05') AND close_usd < pre_close) AS total_sessions_below
FROM daily

SPY ilifunga tena juu ya kiwango chake cha kabla ya kushushwa daraja, $120.03, kufungwa kwa Agosti 5, mnamo 2011-08-15, baada ya 5 vikao chini yake. Urejeshaji huo haukudumu. Mgogoro wa Ulaya ulizidi kuwa mbaya wakati wa majira ya vuli, na kiwango halisi cha chini cha marekebisho kilichapishwa mnamo 2011-10-03 kwa $109.92, -8.4% chini ya kufungwa kabla ya kushushwa daraja na -2.1% chini hata ya kufungwa kwa Black Monday. Kwa jumla, SPY ilifunga chini ya kiwango chake cha Agosti 5 kwa 41 vikao, la mwisho likiwa mnamo 2011-11-28. Kwa hivyo, ratiba ya uaminifu ina pande mbili: athari ya kushushwa daraja yenyewe ilifutwa ndani ya wiki moja, wakati marekebisho yaliyoingia yaliendelea kwa karibu miezi minne zaidi.

Kile siku hii inafundisha

Kuna mbinu mbili muhimu za kukumbuka. Kwanza, mishtuko ya ishara inabadilisha bei kwa kasi na kurudi kwa kasi: downgrade haikubadilisha mtiririko wa fedha popote, na upangaji upya wa -6.5% ulirejeshwa ndani ya vikao 5, hata wakati marekebisho mapana yaliyozunguka ulichukua miezi kutatuliwa. Pili, chombo kinachodhaniwa "kuharibiwa" si kile kinachoanguka kila wakati: Treasuries zilipanda kupitia downgrade yao wenyewe wakati equities, hasa hisa za benki, ndizo zilizopata pigo. Wakati kichwa cha habari kinataja mali, angalia ambapo uuzaji unatua kabla ya kuamini hadithi inajiandika yenyewe.

Maswali Yanayoulizwa Mara kwa Mara Kuhusu Kushushwa Daraja kwa Marekani

Je, hisa zilifanyika nini wakati Marekani iliposhushwa daraja?

Kipindi cha kwanza cha biashara baada ya kushushwa daraja Ijumaa usiku, Jumatatu, Agosti 8, 2011, SPY ilishuka kwa -6.5%, ikifunga karibu na kiwango chake cha chini kabisa, ikiwa ni kikao cha 9 cha SPY kilichokuwa kibaya zaidi kati ya 2003–2025. Wiki iliyofuata ilijaa misururu ya kuporomoka na kupanda kwa asilimia nyingi.

Je, kikomo cha deni ni nini, na kilihusiana vipi na kushushwa daraja?

Kikomo cha deni ni kikomo cha kisheria cha jumla ya ukopaji wa serikali ya shirikisho la Marekani; kukifikia kunazuia Hazina kutoa deni jipya kulipa bili ambazo Congress tayari imeidhinisha. Mzozo wa 2011 wa kuongeza kikomo hicho uliendelea hadi saa chache kabla ya tarehe iliyotabiriwa ya kukosa kulipa, na S&P ilitaja uchezaji wa hatari huo kama sababu kuu ya kuondoa daraja la AAA siku tatu baadaye.

Je, mwamko wa tete ulikuwa mkubwa kiasi gani mnamo Agosti 2011?

VXX, hati ya biashara inayofuatilia mikataba ya muda mfupi ya VIX, iliruka 14.6% mnamo Agosti 8 pekee, na wiki iliyofuata ilijaa misururu ya vikao vya +4.6% na -4.4% kwenye S&P, mabadiliko ya kila siku ya ukubwa ambao haukuonekana isipokuwa 2008 na 2020.

Je, Marekani imeshushwa daraja tena tangu 2011?

Ndiyo. Fitch ilishusha Marekani hadi AA+ mnamo Agosti 2023, na Moody's ilifuata hadi Aa1 mnamo Mei 2025, ikiwa ni shirika la mwisho kati ya matatu makubwa kuacha daraja lake la juu. Hakuna kati ya matukio haya yaliyolingana na mwendo wa siku moja wa hisa uliofanana na Agosti 8, 2011; kushushwa daraja kwa kwanza kulileta mshtuko wa mfano, huku yaliyofuata yakithibitisha mwelekeo ambao masoko tayari yalijua.

Je, poromoko la 2011 linalinganishwaje na 2008 au 2020?

Lilikuwa ni upangaji upya wa mshtuko mmoja ndani ya soko la ng'ombe lililokuwepo, badala ya kufunguka kwa mkopo wa kimfumo: kali, ya haraka, na iliyorudishwa kabisa ndani ya miezi michache, ambapo 2008 iliendelea kuanguka kwa nusu mwaka na 2020 ilibana soko la dubu ndani ya wiki nne.

Kila paneli hapo juu ni swala lililohifadhiwa na lenye matoleo kwenye kumbukumbu za kihistoria, panua SQL ili kuona kila kipimo. Unataka kuhisi siku hii badala ya kuisoma? Ni moja ya matukio yanayoweza kuchezwa katika kiigaji cha biashara cha Strasmore Labs.